Bibliometric Analysis of the Journal Dreaming: Where Is the Research on Color in Dreams?

Chris Piotrowski

        The scientific investigation of dreams has attracted scholarly interest for well over a century, represented by an extensive body of knowledge. Yet, there is a dearth of studies regarding the breadth of investigatory interest areas representing this voluminous repository of research literature. The past 3 decades have seen the emergence of a rather distinguished publication with a focus on the subject matter of dreams, the journal Dreaming. In order to grasp the scope and investigatory domain on the topic of dreams, the current study reports on a bibliometric analysis of research studies published in Dreaming over the past 25 years (1998-2023). The analysis reviewed 600 articles; of these 28 were erratum, comments, editorials. Since the aim of the analysis was to include only primary research, these 28 references were deleted from the pool of articles. Thus, the total dataset represented 572 studies. The author determined the topical descriptor that reflected the main focus/aim of each study and maintained a frequency tally across individual topical categories. The top 10 investigatory subjects were (in rank order): Theory/model, nightmares, dream content, lucid dreaming, methods/types of data analysis, cross-cultural, dream recall, post-traumatic states, specific measures/scales related to dreaming, and neurophysiology. A myriad of salient topics received sparse coverage. Study 1 discusses the implications of these findings. Study 2 reviews research studies, indexed in PsycINFO, on the specific topic of colors in dreams, as this was an under-represented area of study in the journal Dreaming, based on the current bibliometric analysis. Researchers are urged to expand literature search strategies in order to obtain a comprehensive overview of select subject areas.

Introduction:

        Historically, as studies on a specific area of investigation accumulate over the years, there comes a time to review the scope and breadth of this select body of literature. Such a scholarly endeavor provides an avenue to help us expand our understanding on the nature of the select subject matter under study. With this as a pretext, it cannot be denied that the topic of dreams and dreaming has been a lively subject area of human inquiry, culminating in extensive scholarship over recent decades (Cavallero & Foulkes, 1993; Diamond, 1962; Foulkes, 1978; Hall, 1951; Hartmann, 1970; Hoss & Gongloff, 2019). At the same time, the research stream on the topic of dreams is emergent in nature, where divergent views on most issues that comprise this field of inquiry are rather apparent (Barrett & McNamara, 2007; Hill, 2004). Hence, any clarification on the state of this evolving specialty area would be a welcome addition to the literature. Noteworthy, Nielsen and Germain (1998), in a comparative study of historical publication patterns indexed in the databases Medline versus PsycINFO, found a renewed interest in dream research evident in psychological literature since 1980. More recently, Hoffman (2013) reviewed the quality and rigor of studies published in the journal Dreaming. However, to date, no bibliometric study on the subject matter of dreams/dreaming has been reported. The aim of the current study is to address this void in the literature. To that end, a bibliometric review of primary research studies in the journal Dreaming over the past 25 years was undertaken.

Study 1 Method:

        Bibliometric research designs are a well-recognized approach in investigating and identifying the structure of scholarly output regarding select topical subject matter. Indeed, over the past 2 decades this methodology has been applied across various sub-disciplines in the field of psychology, as well as analyses of individual psychology journals (e.g., Gonzalez-Alvarez & Palomar-Garcia, 2014; Mahoney et al., 2010; Piotrowski, 2021; Piotrowski & Watt, 2022). A search in the database PsycINFO identified 600 studies for the journal Dreaming (1998-2023). Of these, 28 were book reviews, erratum/corrections, comment/replies, and editorials, which were deleted from the pool of primary reference sources. Hence, the total dataset for the current analysis was 572 peer-reviewed articles. Based on a review of each individual study, the author tagged the reference with a sole topical descriptor that best represented the main focus of each article. A frequency tally, across individual subject categories, was maintained and then summed for each topical descriptor.

Findings:

        Table 1 presents the rank-order of investigatory topical areas, based on the procedure noted above. As the topic of dreams and dreaming is viewed from a wide spectrum of theoretical perspectives, it is apparent that researchers study this area based on a myriad of theories and conceptual models (e.g., Barcaro & Magrini, 2022; Bulkeley, 2019; Domhoff, 2001, 2019; Kline & Hill, 2014; Mageo, 2004; Spangler & Hill, 2015). Among the most prominent models is the ‘Wake to Dream Continuity’ hypothesis (Erdelyi, 2017; King & DeCicco, 2009;Malinowski & Horton, 2014). At the same time, this focus on theory/models perhaps explains the wide breadth of methodological approaches in the data collection and analysis stage of investigations (see Schredl, 2002). Moreover, this review noted the use of 16 different scales or questionnaires on dreams/dreaming which undoubtedly reflects a lack of consensus in the field with regard to measurement.

Table 1. Rank Order of Predominant Investigatory Topics

Note. Topics with more than 10 articles in the total dataset (N=572).

        There appears to be extensive research attention devoted to the study of nightmares (in both adults and children), lucid dreams, and cross-cultural comparisons (Table 1). Dream researchers appear to have high interest in examining the impact of psychological traumatic states (e.g., PTSD) on both disturbances in sleep and dream content (Fabik, 2022; Jones et al., 2022). Related to stress reactions, investigators devote substantial research attention to emotional states experienced by dreamers upon awakening (Davidson et al., 2005; Yu, 2007). It is noteworthy that permeating much of the research on dreaming is the role of neurophysiology (Barcaro & Magrini, 2022; Tsunematsu, 2022), such as REM states, which is evident as an investigative issue across studies on dreams.

        At the same time, individual differences factors, such as personality issues seem to be an important area of study. In recent years, researchers have directed their attention to the potentially significant impact of video gaming and the COVID-19 pandemic on both dreams and dreaming processes (Gorgoni et al., 2022; Kelly et al., 2022). Rather noteworthy, a myriad of salient topical areas received limited attention from researchers. Surprisingly, only 3 studies were found to have a major focus on the issue of dreaming in color. Hence, this served as an impetus to examine scholarly research reports on the issue of color in dreams. Study 2 provides a brief overview of this body of literature.

Study 2

The author conducted a keyword search of PsycINFO using a Boolean search for the terms:

(dreams OR dreaming) and (color OR colour). The search output identified 48 journal articles. Many of these references appeared in periodicals other than the journal Dreaming. What follows is a discussion of this body of research. In addition, a brief synopsis of several key studies in this subject area is presented.

        Dream content, themes, and clarity vary widely, and dreaming recollections are usually depicted in Black/White/Grey-scale imagery (Murzyn, 2012; Schredl et al., 2008). Although the issue of dreaming in color has intrigued the scientific world for many centuries, it wasn’t until Freud’s classic book, The Interpretation of dreams (1900), that the topic of color dreams was undertaken as a serious subject matter of clinical inquiry. Initially, this area of study was conducted under a psychoanalytic framework (Alston et al., 1993; Danckwardt, 2006; Finley, 1921; Garma, 1961; Suinn, 1966; Trosman, 1963; Woltmann, 1965; Yazmajian, 1983). By the 1940s, experimental investigations on colored dreaming appeared under the purview of academic psychology. Seminal findings noted that about 60% of college students experienced dreams in color, with females reporting a higher frequency than males (Middleton, 1942), although other investigators reported rates as high as 83% (see Bentley, 1915). Occasional journal articles on this issue appeared over the ensuing 2 decades, with rates for color dreaming as low as 9% (see Murzyn, 2008, p. 1228). Then the most integrated review of the psychological literature on dreaming in color appeared as a dissertation study entitled ‘The use of color in projective tests and dreams’ (Kafka, 1963). Based on the emerging literature at the time, Kafka concluded that the presence of color in dreams reflects the physiognomic-affective perceptual style of the dreamer. Specifically, color disguises and defends against repressive impulses and dynamic conflicts. However, subsequent research findings confirmed that method of dream recollection was the major factor in prevalence estimates of color dreams, i.e., use of REM-awakening techniques (e.g., Herman et al., 1968). One intriguing theory in this field of study is that almost all dreams contain color, whether or not individuals report chromatic aspects of their dreaming upon awakening (see Snyder et al., 1968).

Table 2. Key Studies on Color in Dreams

Conclusion:

        Future research efforts on ‘color in dreams’ need to examine individual differences and personality characteristics (e.g., Schredl, 2008; Suinn, 1966) as critical factors in study samples. Also, the role of colors in our waking natural environment needs to be considered both a causative as well as mediative factor (e.g., Spence et al., 2006). Moreover, investigators need to clarify the factors that impact prevalence rates and methods used (i.e., REM, sleep stages, instructions to study participants) in determining color recollections (Herman et al., 1968; Jankowski et al., 1977). In fact, the widely divergent rates in recall of color content, in part, reflect the unreliability of self-report data in dream research which has been a perennial concern over the decades (Hoss, 2019; Schredl, 2008; Schwitzgebel, 2003). One interesting observation in this area of research is that while most dreams contain color depictions (Murzyn, 2008), the majority of people do not recall specific colors in dreams (Konig et al., 2017). Moreover, while dream fragments may appear in various hues, few individuals dream in grand ‘technicolor’ scenes (Hall, 1951, p. 62). Research to date finds the color Red (see Piotrowski, 2023) as the most recalled hue in this specific area of dream research. It has been suggested that color perception in dreams is largely determined by intricacies of the visual cortex of the brain (Padgham, 1975).

        While the topic of dreams remains an active area of scientific inquiry, few researchers have focused on a) the clinical significance of dreaming in colors and b) the interpretive implications of specific colors in dreaming states (Padgham, 1975). Thus, this may be the next challenge for emerging investigation, particularly since dreams are a significant clinical issue reported by patients in psychotherapy (Crook & Hill, 2003; Fabik, 2022; Hill et al., 2008; Keller et al., 1995; Schredl et al., 2000; Tauber & Green, 1962).

        Finally, in order to obtain a comprehensive overview of the extant scholarly literature on select subject matter, researchers need to adapt a multi-database search strategy. In particular, this applies to specialty journals where due to editorial preference the breadth of topical coverage may be somewhat restricted. Literature reviews in the social and behavioral sciences can be supplemental by including searches of allied databases such as Medline.

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