Color Red and the Assessment Process: Implications for the Rorschach

Chris Piotrowski

        Historically, the effects of color have generated extensive scholarly interest in the field of psychology and allied disciplines (Elliot et al., 2015). Yet, the majority of this body of research has appeared in journals outside of the sub-specialty of psychological assessment. As 5 of the 10 Rorschach cards have chromatic characteristics, the significance of individuals’ reactions to color on these inkblots seems critical to the assessment process. In the initial phase of Rorschach administration, the sole color on cards II and III is red. The aim of the current study is to highlight the critical importance and impact of the color Red on human perception and cognitive processes, with direct implications for the Rorschach method. A review of the empirical research on this issue confirms that the color Red has the potential to influence visual selection, perceptual processes, avoidance motivation, and psychological inhibitions. Moreover, the color Red has been found to elicit strong emotional reactivity and disruptive effects on cognitive processes. Overall, the preponderance of experimental findings supports the position that of all the different hues, the color Red seems to have a) high arousal properties and b) a detrimental influence on cognitive-perceptual performance. Moreover, research suggests that cognitive processing style in response to the color Red can occur unconsciously. Of interest to the assessment process, several studies on the impact of the color Red specific to Rorschach chromatic plates corroborate this general conclusion. Further research on the significance of the color Red in Rorschach assessment is sorely needed. An extensive bibliography that serves as a basis for this review is provided.

Introduction:

        Color plays a significant part in the human experience, and whether consciously or unconsciously, is rather ubiquitous. Hence, color has a fundamental role in human perception and cognition regarding the world around us (Elliot et al., 2015). While colors engender attributes such as chroma and hue, these features also possess connotative meaning both intra-individually and socially (Briki & Hue, 2016; Elliot, 2015). Indeed, the field of psychology has embraced the scientific study on the role and impact of color for over a century (e.g., Wells, 1910). The importance of color serves a central role in the works of Carl Jung. Current scholarly interest in the study of colors is evidenced by the publication of a chapter on color psychology in the rather prestigious publication Annual Review of Psychology (see Elliot & Maier, 2014). A recent review (de Villemor - Amaral & Yazigi, 2022) verifies the significance of color in psychological assessment, particularly with regard to projective techniques. Since color is a central aspect of the assessment process on the Rorschach test, it seems worthwhile to study the role of different color hues in this process (Piotrowski, 2017, 2018). The present focus will be specifically on the color Red. Thus, the current study presents a conceptual framework that addresses the significance of the color Red in the assessment enterprise, with particular application regarding the Rorschach.

The Rorschach and Color:

        Prior studies assert that while colors can convey psychological ‘meaning’, individuals rarely have insight into the influence of color on their affective, cognitive, and perceptual functioning (Fetterman et al., 2014; Gil & Le Bigot, 2017). Thus, it is imperative that researchers/clinicians need to account for the ‘functional’ aspect of color, particularly with regard to perception and cognitive processes (see Elliot & Aarts, 2011). Of all the hues, the color Red has received extensive research attention in the general scientific literature (e.g., Berthold et al., 2017; Dolezalova et al., 2021; Lehmann et al., 2018; Gruber, 2018; Hong et al., 2020; Steele & Rash, 2021; Wu et al., 2018). Moreover, Elliot and Maier (2014) argue that based on experimental research the influence of color Red on mental functioning varies by ‘psychological context’ and has been shown to have a keen impact on psychological responding via emotion-based associations. These findings support extensive research regarding the significant effect that the color Red has on human emotions (Bertrams et al., 2020; Fetterman et al., 2011; Kuhbandner & Pekrun, 2013; Kuniecki et al., 2015; Mentzel et al., 2017; Ou et al., 2004; Sutton & Altarriba, 2016; Young et al., 2013), including studies on children (Gil & Le Bigot, 2017).

        Historically, it is not surprising that color has attracted much attention from assessment researchers as 5 of the 10 Rorschach cards have chromatic characteristics (Lazarus, 1949; Pasto & Kivisto, 1956; Potter & Sarason, 1947; Ryan et al., 1971; Siipola, 1950; Siipola et al., 1950). Interestingly, there is but sparse research on Rorschach cards II and III, where the color Red is a prominent feature (see Jimenez Gomez et al., 1994). Pertaining to the Rorschach, Guidetti et al. (1986) found ‘shock’ specific to the color Red. Hence, the open question is: What is the significance of the color Red on these Rorschach plates with regard to the attentional / perceptual processes and psychological reactance to these two cards? An examination of experimental and clinical findings on the psychological impact of the color Red may provide some insights towards a clinical framework in addressing this issue.

        In the assessment process, the Rorschach is considered a perceptual-cognitive task. Several key studies call our attention to the role of the color Red regarding a perception-cognitive link. Shih and Sperling (1996) found that the color Red has an impact on selective attention during visual search. Meier et al. (2012) conclude that exposure to the color Red has motivational, as well as symbolic implications for human perception. Seminal studies (i.e., Aaronson, 1964; Jacobs & Hustmyer, 1974; Wilson, 1966) identified the high arousal potential for the color Red, whereas Wallen (1948) found an aversive association between the color Red on the Rorschach to blood. Later, Crane and Hicks (1989), in testing arousal theory, reported that the color Red elicits high arousal potential. Maurizi (1988) asserts that the color Red prompts heightened visual impact. These findings have been corroborated by subsequent research (see Briki & Hue, 2016; Mehla et al., 2017).

        Due to the negative connotation attributed to the color Red (Elliot & Meier, 2014; Piotrowski, 2012), researchers have shown that the color Red can activate ‘avoidance’ motivation (Tanaka & Tokuno, 2011; Thorstenson, 2015). Perhaps this is due to ratings for the color Red as an unpleasant experience (see Jacobs & Suess, 1975; Lewinski, 1938). In this regard, Drechsler (1960) reported that colors (including red) can have a disruptive effect on ongoing thought processes, whereas Martin (2017) found that the color Red inhibits cognitive performance. Perhaps, these latter findings can be explained by visual sensitivity to the color Red which has been confirmed by prior research studies (Conners & Kinney, 1962; Hansen et al., 2009; Tseng et al., 2010). In this context, investigators have also noted that color hues have a differential neurodynamic effect, with the color Red harboring a high level of physiological complexity (see Roy et al., 2021; Smets, 1969). Of particular interest to Rorschach assessment, Payen et al. (2011) and Nakshian (1964) found that the color Red elicits inhibition, and several researchers have suggested that cognitive processing style to the color Red can occur unconsciously (Li et al., 2021; Lichtenfeld et al., 2009). Overall, this body of research findings suggests that the color Red can have a detrimental role regarding the cognitive-perceptual performance on the Rorschach.

        However, contrary findings have been reported. For example, Caldwell and Jones (1985) question the assumption that ‘warm’ colors (such as red) are more arousing. Bertrams et al. (2015) found that individual difference factors (e.g., ego strength) can moderate the detrimental effect of color Red on cognitive performance, whereas Smajic et al. (2014) found no relationship between the ‘Red’ effect and anxiety with regard to performance. In a cautionary note, Whitfild and Whiltshire (1990) claim that laboratory research on color preference is not translational to real world context. Table 1 highlights several recent studies that may have implications for Rorschach assessment in the context of the current discussion.

Table 1. Research Studies on the Color Red and Personality Factors

Conclusion:

        This paper summaries key findings from the extant literature on the potential detrimental effect of the color Red on both perceptual and cognitive functions. The author argues that this body of scholarship should be incorporated as a critical framework for clinical consideration regarding the assessment process specific to the Rorschach Method, as a foundation for further research investigations.

        This review prompts several issues that need to be addressed and elucidated by future research, in light of the fact that projective techniques continue as popular clinical tools (Piotrowski, 2022). Does the ‘color shock’ of the color Red on Rorschach cards II and III have an immediate influence on number of responses and perceptual attention specific to these 2 plates? If so, how does this process impact an individual’s response or protocol to all remaining cards? Indeed, how does this initial response to the color Red impact the Structural

        Summary? Moreover, individual personality difference factors (see Katz & Ziffo, 1975; Schmidt et al., 1955) in responding to the color Red on cards II and III need to be examined further. Would presentation of an ‘achromatic’ version of cards II and III deviate significantly from the traditional administration? Finally, based on vision research: a) the issue of color contrast sensitivity (Ennis et al., 2014) needs to be systematically investigated using the Rorschach, and b) the link between various mental disorders and disturbances of color perception seems a fruitful area for further research (see Keane et al., 2018; Pevzner, 1969; Warner, 1949).

        Advances in our understanding on the differential role of the color Red based on age group, i.e., children, adults, the elderly (Baldelli et al., 1991; Gil & Le Bigot, 2017; Gnambs et al., 2015), as well as the study of the positive attributes of the color Red to the human experience (e.g., Pazda et al., 2021; Pontes & Hoegg, 2020; Rook, 2014) are sorely needed. Moreover, measurement issues related to color perception (see Gelineau, 1981; Roy et al., 2021) need to be addressed by future research. Overall, the thrust of the current discussion highlights the importance of the translational link between the findings of basic experimental research and the clinical assessment process regarding the Rorschach.

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